15 October 2026
Words: Josefina Salomón – Illustrations: Sergio Ortiz Borbolla
1.Stimulant. Cocaine is a highly addictive stimulant substance that acts directly on the central nervous system. It increases brain activity, elevating energy levels and alertness through short-lived feelings of euphoria. Its main chemical substance comes from the leaves of the Erythroxylum coca plant which, in its different varieties, contains varying levels of the alkaloid.
2.Coca. Although the cocaine alkaloid content of the coca leaf is between 0.5 and 1.0 percent, in 1961, the United Nations declared the plant illegal. However, millions of people in Latin America use the plant as a mild stimulant, an appetite suppressant, and to combat fatigue and altitude sickness. People chew it by keeping a ball of saliva-soaked coca leaves in their mouth along with a substance that helps extract the alkaloid, drink it as a tea, or even use it as a dietary supplement.
3.Effects. Cocaine constricts blood vessels, increases body temperature, blood pressure, and heart rate, which can cause severe adverse effects, particularly when combined with other substances. It is so addictive that in experiments, laboratory mice were seen enduring electric shocks and even giving up food and water to get the drug. Over time, cocaine kills dopamine receptors, our “pleasure centers,” which means more doses are needed to generate the same effect.
1.The Andes. The altitude and climate of the slopes of this monumental mountain range, in the areas of Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru, provide the perfect environment for the coca plant, which can be harvested several times a year. Coca bush growth has been increasing in recent years, with a 50 percent rise between 2022 and 2023 in Colombia, and a 10 percent rise between 2023 and 2024 in Bolivia, according to United Nations data.
2.Expansion. The cultivation of the famous plant has also expanded to other countries in an attempt by criminal organizations to extend their businesses. From the border areas of Venezuela and Ecuador to Guatemala and Honduras—countries that had traditionally been transit points—an increase in crops has been recorded, although the vast majority remains concentrated in Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia.
3.Production. Like any business, the cocaine market transforms periodically, in an attempt to generate greater profits. Just as the cultivation of the coca leaf has expanded, the processing of cocaine has also found new spaces. Many laboratories, which were traditionally located in the Colombian jungle, are relocating to Europe, where the number of users continued to rise.
4.Transport. The establishment and expansion of laboratories in Europe was facilitated by new transportation techniques that allow “cocaine paste” to be transported to the new laboratories that process it and make it into the final product. Among the many techniques and strategies for transporting it are homemade submarines, fruit and vegetable shipments as well as hiding the product in machinery, and even on the traveler’s bodies.
5.Ingenuity. To avoid getting caught, traffickers are adopting a new method: camouflaging the cocaine paste in liquid form within products like paper, clothing, or plastics. This is later recovered in clandestine laboratories that employ Latin American experts.
1.From leaf to powder. Cocaine production is a complex process, harsh on workers, and highly toxic to the environment. It can take up to 300 kilos of coca leaves to make one kilo of base paste, which can then be transformed into cocaine hydrochloride for consumption. To separate the long dark green leaves from the plant, people first rub them with their hands. The leaves are then crushed, mixed with lime, and soaked in gasoline, which helps extract the alkaloid. The liquid is mixed in large metal vats for hours. Next, chemicals such as sulfuric acid and water are used to extract the dissolved cocaine. A group of investigative journalists in Colombia described this part of the process as similar to “cheese making.”
2.Cocaine hydrochloride. That lumpy substance is filtered and left to dry until it turns into solid rocks: this is “cocaine paste” or “base paste.” These rocks are then moved to more specialized clandestine laboratories (known as cristalizaderos) for their final transformation. There, the paste is dissolved in solvents like acetone or ether and carefully filtered to remove the remaining impurities. To convert this base into the consumable white powder, hydrochloric acid is added, causing a chemical reaction that crystallizes the drug.
Finally, the mixture is carefully filtered, pressed, and dried (avoiding direct fire due to flammable gases), to obtain high-purity cocaine hydrochloride.
3.Fillers. The production and retail sale of cocaine has a single objective: obtaining the maximum possible profits, whatever the cost. Therefore, it should come as no surprise that the final product contains filler substances that often increase the danger of the drug. Among the most dangerous is fentanyl—a powerful synthetic opiate 50 to 100 times more potent than heroin—or the even more potent carfentanil, which has caused a large number of overdose deaths and provoked a severe crisis in the United States.
1.Complex network. This is made by the many organizations that control the production and distribution of cocaine, generally as part of criminal portfolios that include other illicit activities such as the trafficking of precious metals, weapons, and even people. Currently, the business is managed by powerful Mexican and Colombian organizations, but with a global presence, that control—through smaller criminal groups and even individuals—the production and transport of cocaine to the markets that generate the most profits for them, particularly in Europe and Oceania. Adapting to opportunities is what makes these organizations increasingly efficient and powerful.
2.The Invisibles. Criminal organizations could not operate alone. Oiling the gears of their operations are hundreds of thousands of people who are in charge of cultivating, processing, and transporting drugs, guarding shipments and organizing logistics, as well as paying and collecting extortions, among many other activities. These individuals usually come from marginalized social sectors and are frequently the first to be punished by the justice system.
3.Consumers. Cocaine consumption—the fourth most popular drug behind marijuana, opioids, and amphetamines—is on the rise worldwide, according to United Nations data. The largest number of users is in the Americas and Europe, although, proportionally, the highest concentration of people who use cocaine is in Australia, where the drug has the highest value.
This is an updated version of an explainer that was published in In.Visibles in September 2023.
